Student Assessment Considerations

Assessment, Grades, and Homework

by  Harvey Craft

Student assessment methods need consistency across the nation. The typical method of assessment is a matter of grading student work and averaging the grades, but assessment involves much more than numbers. 

Assessment Quick and Dirty

Teachers are invited to read the points below, read the articles and links in this channel and offer opinions. Perhaps your contributions will help others improve grading and assessment. The points below are intended for kick-starting your assessment process-- how and why you assess.

Students Assessment Issues

What is the basis for your method of grading? (I.e., did you invent it, adapt it from another source, base it on reading and/or research?)

• Do you adjust grades for student behavior like being late to class?
• Do you have a test/quiz make up policy?
• Do you give extra credit to allow students to improve a period grade?
• How often do you give homework?
• Do you include homework as part of a period grade? If so, how much does it count?
• Do you grade all student work?
• Do you know the difference between formative and summative assessments?
• How many grades per student do you record in a typical grading period?
• Do you ever give true/false items?
• Do you give zeros?
• Do you give a variety of items on major tests like multiple choice, essay, short answer, or other tasks?

Perhaps I omitted something that you would like to include or encourage others to discuss. Leave us a comment? 

Students and Cheating: Thinking it Through

When Students Cheat

by Harvey Craft

Wandering eyes might indicate cheating,
but be careful before accusing.

Cheating is wrong, but do teachers over-react to the offense? What is the best way to approach cheating? 

Cheating and Morality

Cheating has long been viewed as a moral issue. For most people cheating is the moral equivalence of stealing information. Reactions to cheating range from looking the other way to giving a zero, but there is a lack of consistency. Teachers are sometimes hesitant to accuse students of cheating; some are ready to jump on anything that looks like cheating. 

Truthfully, cheating is going to occur. Humans are just not that good. We do lots of wrong things. Most of us have a forgiving spirit and we find appropriate ways to deal with the transgressions of others. The IRS loses an estimated $300 billion yearly due to cheating on taxes, although most people think it's wrong. 

Fundamentally, schools are about teaching specific subjects, although we like to think that we can teach responsibility and character as well. Character development is a tough goal in most schools. All teachers understand the importance of good parenting in turning out a proper child. Unfortunately, the world has an abundance of poorly trained parents.

While teachers may be morally outraged by cheating, students may honestly not understand why it's big deal. The consequences they receive may push them deeper in to a belief system that tells them that authority figures are bad. 

When students cheat, they try to find some way to justify what they do to make it acceptable. That is what most adults do when we are caught in some transgression. Also, more students cheat than teacher catch. Some are better at it. Cheating is not a behavior that belongs exclusively to bad students.

Facts About Cheating can be Disturbing

Cheating has been studied widely for years. The results of different studies produce different information. Some findings are listed below: 

• cheating increases as students progress from lower to higher grades,
• high school students are less likely to report others for cheating than are elementary students,
• studies indicate that at least 75% of high school students admit to cheating,
• cheating is more common among college students with high grade point averages,
• the pressure for high marks is a major factor in cheating,
• while cheating on tests exceeds 70%, copying homework may exceed 90%,
• the vast majority of students who cheat are not caught,
• cheating is to a large extent learned behavior, as students see others cheat with impunity they do what others do,
• emphasis on grades instead of learning can lead to cheating.

Implications for Teachers

Much of what teachers do unwittingly encourages cheating. Specifically:

• assigning and grading homework,
• assigning projects that can be copied from the Internet,
• assigning books or other materials that are abridged in Cliff Notes, SparkNotes, etc,
• providing students questions that teachers believe will be on standardized tests,
• talking with students about their own dishonest behavior, like cheating on income tax,
• hesitating to question students about work that appears to be done by someone else e.g., a science project that is too exact, neat, and inappropriately sophisticated for a student's age,
• over-emphasizing grades to the exclusion of learning,
• giving open-book or take-home tests,
• allowing or encouraging the use of a "cheat sheet."

Implications for Parents

Some of the same issues apply to parents as apply to teachers, e.g., talking about cheating on taxes or other dishonest deeds. Parents are sometimes guilty of being overly critical of an assignment and assisting in some way instead of taking the matter up with the teacher. Projects can become the work of parents when children procrastinate or if parents see a project as an opportunity to raise a grade by offering too much help.

There is no question that grades are often over-emphasized and can become the raison d'être for attending school. Philosophically, grades are secondary to learning it is a lesson well-learned. Good grades can often represent compliance. Students who are held strictly to doing as they are told by parents and teachers may miss the point of learning, but do the right things to get high grades   painting by numbers can produce a pretty good picture even for someone who lacks painting kills. College may result in a huge expenditure without much compensation in the job market.

Parents help create a love of learning by discussing what is learned with their children, by reading to them, by having books in the home, by showing interest in learning as purposeful behavior, and by being involved in childrens' schools at some level. 

Cheating and its Consequences

A common consequence of cheating is a zero on the assignment, but this may not settle the matter. Cheating tends to be viewed as a nearly criminal act sometimes more serious than fighting or bullying. Adolescence is a time of emotional stress, and many teens are known to suffer from feelings of inadequacy, loneliness, and depression. An accusation of cheating can be devastating for some students. A wise teacher will be certain of the offense and deal with it swiftly.   

Moral outrage is not needed or appropriate when students are caught cheating. There is no purpose in a lecture to the guilty student or the class about the evils of cheating. Teachers should resist the temptation to use their moral compass to steer student behavior. Schools do, or should, have a consequence for cheating and that is what should be calmly followed. 

We should not consider cheating to be a uniquely deviant behavior and allow them to take away opportunities to learn by giving zeros. Many students will not flinch at getting a zero. Others will be disgraced. A better approach might be a requirement that a test be retaken under close supervision at an inconvenient time with some additional consequence of detention. Some teachers will want to give zeros, but a public education is so vital that students must not be denied opportunities for maintaining their grades because they make bad choices. Parents should be informed, of course.  

Cheating, because of the possibility of emotional consequences, should be handled tactfully without outrage and condemnation. Always have in-school counseling available as an option.

What Can Be Done About Student Cheating?  neatoday.org  

Cheating   kidshealth.org

George Washington's Teeth-- A President's Day Lesson

One of many sets of George 
Washington's dentures.
Courtesy of the New York Academy of Medicine

George Washington’s Wooden Teeth

by Harvey Craft

George Washington's teeth have been the topic of controversy and legend for over two centuries. The popular tale is that his false teeth were made of wood. Not so.

The Father of his Country owned several sets of dentures, but none were made of wood. He was tall, proper, and charismatic, but suffered from dental problems for his adult life at a time in history when dentistry was, at best, an inexact science and often a practice to be avoided. 

People cleaned their teeth in a variety of ways – chewing wood, mouth washes, flossing with horsehair, scrubbing with salt, powders, etc. Many neglected dental hygiene. Dental problems in Washington’s era could lead to severe, intractable pain. His accounts left in letters and other writings portray the dental miseries and dentistry of the time.

Washington’s Early Dental Problems

Washington was a strong and athletic leader of great physical and emotional strength, but he undoubtedly suffered great pain as a result of poor dental health. The basics of dental hygiene were known in his day and Washington apparently tried to take care of his teeth, by brushing daily, using mouthwashes, and seeking dental care. Despite his efforts, he suffered frequent infections possibly related to his teeth.

Washington began to lose teeth in his early twenties – extractions continued on a regular basis for the next twenty years. Ironically, the physicians of his day may have been largely responsible for much of his agony and tooth loss, as they used a mercury compound – to treat various medical problems from which Washington suffered. Unfortunately, mercury weakens and even destroys tooth enamel. On the day of Washington’s first inauguration he had only one natural tooth. Smiling revealed his dental issues, so he usually remained glum.

Abscessed and infected gums became an accepted part of Washington’s life contributing to his occasional quick temper and reluctance to smile. The several dentures that Washington owned were typically ill-fitting and uncomfortable. There was no single design, but wood was not used in any of them. One set even contained several human teeth – his own previous from previous extractions that he saved and teeth purchased from slave. Various other components of Washington’s dentures included gold and hippopotamus ivory, and springs. The dentures were primarily cosmetic as Washington generally had to eat soft food due to pain caused by the poorly fitting dentures.

Washington Suffered from Disfiguration as Well as Pain

Washington’s face was frequently swollen from infections, one severe enough to result in cause a small hole in his left check that left a permanent scar. Artists of the day portrayed Washington inconsistently depending on the distortion caused by dentures, infection or both.

It is a credit to Washington that he was able to manage the unrelenting pain and effectively lead the Continental Army and the nation as president. He managed to keep his dental nightmares concealed from people, but the British stole a letter of his revealing the problems. Apparently, they did not release the information.

Washington suffered from various health issues most of his life. He endured pain from bad dentistry and in the end died from the ancient practice of “bleeding” while sick. He likely died of blood loss.

Teaching Well, Teaching Correctly

Teaching is not a Simple Matter of Tricks and Tips  

Teachers know what they are doing
and why they are doing it!

(for Melissa)

by Harvey Craft

Teachers are constantly looking for ways to improve instruction and many seek help through tricks and tips. Good teaching requires knowledge of what works.

Teaching is hard work. The lack of consistency in accepted practices makes it even harder. While the nation has made some progress in developing common standards, there is still a lack of agreement on what methods work best to transmit information and problem-solving skills to students. Effective teaching demands a commitment to professional development. 

Teachers must be able to justify what how they teach. The key question is, "Do I know this works, and how do know?"

Professional Development Defined

Professional development in any field is a matter of staying aware of those practices that have been demonstrated to be effective. Teaching, like any job done well, requires an understanding that learning new techniques must continue. If ones job is assembling widgets on an assembly line, then variations from proven practices can be immediately detected by workers down the line who depend on everyone repeating precise steps.

Teaching is not about assembling widgets, but about transferring information and thinking skills. Every students ability to learn is affected by a variety of factors. Teachers must be willing and able to manage individual differences. Teachers must commit to grow continuously and learn new instructional methods. Preparation by college education is virtually essential for good teaching, but learning doesn't stop after college.
Teachers must Commit to Improve

Teachers should be the best learners. They are trained to understand learning and they should believe that what they do is important. The various media are quick to report bad news about teaching, and truthfully, teachers make mistakes.

• Too much homework, especially for younger learners;
• Poor methods of assessment and evaluation;
• Grading methods that are archaic, inaccurate, and misleading;
• Over-dependence on rewards;
• Failure to treat students with respect.

The list could be much longer, but the point is simple. Large numbers of teachers spend too much time preparing lessons and bulletin boards and too little time staying current on contemporary and controversial issues in education. Too many teachers resist change while expecting students to adjust and readjust to the instructional methods of various teachers.

The commitment to improve implies that teachers make a conscious decision to be aware of what works and why it works. Reading and joining respected professional organizations is essential to improvement.

The ideas that are exchanged in teachers lounges are often incorrect and dangerous. The commitment to improve must involve a willingness to speak out when others are involved in reinforcing the many myths about teaching, students, and parents.

Some Effective Teaching Practices

Good teaching practices are determined by the effect they have on student learning and behavior. Good practices also take into consideration how individual students feel about fairness issues and their attitude about the class.

• Be an informed, enthusiastic, and inspiring teacher. Know the answers to questions and have a positive attitude that inspires students to give their best efforts.
• Smile often.
• Be the adult in the classroom. Don't result to embarrassing or sarcastic put-downs. A soft voice used with authority and consistency is better than shouting to manage students.
• Have an attractive classroom and allow students to contribute to its maintenance. Post student work.
• Rewards are not necessary for learning. Often rewards are given because teachers like the good feeling of giving and not because rewards help. Recognition of effort and helping students feel special and important does not encourage materialistic learning like rewards often do.
• Learn how to construct good assessments. Dependence on packaged assessments can cause problems because they are not written in the same voice that students hear on a daily basis. Know the difference and application of formative and summative assessments. Assess academic progress, not behavior. Dont offer points for favors or deduct points for being late to class, failure to return papers, or similar behaviors.
• Greet students as they enter the class.
• Don't imitate favorite teachers in ones experience as a student, but develop a personal style based on knowledge of best practice.
• Resist the influence of complaining, negative teachers.
• Think of discipline as a way of managing whole class and individual behavior. A quiet class is not necessarily an engaged class. Involve all students in learning.

Summary

Tips and tricks should not define instruction. Good teaching comes from knowledge and implementation of strategies that engage students in learning. Just as teachers strive to encourage students to be life-long learners, teachers should commit to improve teaching skills as long as they teach. Teaching tips should be evaluated by teachers based on their growing knowledge base acquired through continuous, self-imposed learning.