Student Assessment Considerations

Assessment, Grades, and Homework

by  Harvey Craft

Student assessment methods need consistency across the nation. The typical method of assessment is a matter of grading student work and averaging the grades, but assessment involves much more than numbers. 

Assessment Quick and Dirty

Teachers are invited to read the points below, read the articles and links in this channel and offer opinions. Perhaps your contributions will help others improve grading and assessment. The points below are intended for kick-starting your assessment process-- how and why you assess.

Students Assessment Issues

What is the basis for your method of grading? (I.e., did you invent it, adapt it from another source, base it on reading and/or research?)

• Do you adjust grades for student behavior like being late to class?
• Do you have a test/quiz make up policy?
• Do you give extra credit to allow students to improve a period grade?
• How often do you give homework?
• Do you include homework as part of a period grade? If so, how much does it count?
• Do you grade all student work?
• Do you know the difference between formative and summative assessments?
• How many grades per student do you record in a typical grading period?
• Do you ever give true/false items?
• Do you give zeros?
• Do you give a variety of items on major tests like multiple choice, essay, short answer, or other tasks?

Perhaps I omitted something that you would like to include or encourage others to discuss. Leave us a comment? 

THE HOMEWORK DILEMMA: PART 2

Homework or home torture?

The Homework Dilemma: Part 2 

My Opinion for What it’s Worth

Before continuing I am obliged to make it clear that I do not believe in the abolition of all homework. I believe that if it is well-conceived some homework can be useful. I believe in the abolition of bad homework assigned for the wrong reasons.

So how do we determine the value of homework as a teaching tool? A simple question will suffice. “How do I know it works?” That straightforward query allows us to screen new and old instructional methods. If no answer is forthcoming then professional responsibility requires that we find one.

Disagreement on Homework is Common

Teachers don’t need to be researchers. They don’t have to commit to spending hours each week involved in reading journals and searching the Internet. What is needed is healthy skepticism about teaching methods that prods them to ask the question above.

Regrettably, many teachers believe that more homework is the answer to improving learning and pile it on. Some of these teachers have observed that students who do homework make better grades than those who don’t, but drawing a conclusion from that observation is not justified.

There is also the personal factor that is exemplified by teachers feeling that students have disobeyed by not completing an assignment. Kids are supposed to do as they are told, so not doing homework gets personal. The result is often a zero which makes some teachers feel better but does little to improve learning. Finally, there is a prevailing belief that many students will not complete homework unless it is graded. That is because we have taught many students that grades are more important that knowledge. This is the result of overemphasizing grades to the exclusion of learning.

These problems are entrenched, and I won’t attempt to try to solve them here. Part of the problem is the overuse of rewards and awards doled out for grades. In the U.S. we have come to believe in the power of the reward. Albert Einstein was no dummy. He said, “If people are good only because they fear punishment, and hope for reward, then we are a sorry lot indeed.” I agree with Albert.

Real Problems with Homework?

Likely the most common error teachers make regarding homework is grading it. Homework is a formative assessment. Formative assessments are those non-graded activities that students do while they learn something new. If we believe — as experts generally do — you don’t test what you haven’t taught, then we use homework for diagnosis and practice.

“If I don’t grade it they won’t do it!” Well, perhaps not, but if teachers spent more time convincing students that homework has value as a learning tool by making sure that homework addresses standards and therefore will appear on test and quizzes, then the real value of homework will be more clearly established, and the homework is graded when the test is graded.

OK, are you sitting down? Many students can and do copy homework. That single fact renders homework as invalid for grading. Related to copying is the fact that some parents help and some don’t. And as long as I’m talking about parents — please remain seated — some parents just aren’t very good at parenting. Some don’t frankly care whether or not Junior does his work. Knowing this, why punish Junior?

Aside from mom and dad, other factors can make home an unsuitable place for homework. Love and concern may be present, but the home can be collapsing under the weight of dad’s recent arrest, Uncle Bubba’s visits while under the influence, mom’s job loss, etc. Dysfunctional homes are all too common.

Thankfully most homes function well, but homework is often boring. I know it’s true; some of my brightest students told me early on that homework was boring. How dare they! I never promised them a rose garden! Time for zeros! The problem is that negative grades don’t motivate students who aren’t motivated by grades, and they are the ones that are most likely to not do homework. That’s why so many students accumulate strings of zeros. It doesn’t matter! If teachers are interested in motivation, try — really try — to give interesting homework.

Homework should never be assigned as punishment. When my son was in high school he brought home an F for algebra on his first interim. He had an A average on tests and quizzes. His teacher told me that she thought a failing grading was proper punishment and would motivate him to work harder. Duh!

My son’s aversion to homework was born out of his need for down-time. How selfish! Don’t ruin weekends and holidays with homework. Students need and deserve time with friends and family. If you mess up parents’ time they won’t like you either. Remember that other teachers are assigning homework. One of my granddaughters is in the fourth grade. Two weeks ago she called my wife — a former math teacher — for help with a math problems. My wife asked me for help! After missing a new episode of House, we finished, and my granddaughter went to bed with social studies homework not yet done!

In using homework, apply compassion, be empathetic, and don’t let it get personal. A caring, kind, and congenial teacher will affect grades positively more than all the homework ever assigned. There are times when homework is needed, but have specific occasions for assigning it.

Of course you may choose to agree or disagree with the above. You can do all of that homework checking and recording homework grades and calling parents, etc.

But, “How do you know it works?”

Dysfunctional families interfere with homework completion.

 

GRADING AND REPORTING STUDENT LEARNING

Grades are "not essential to the
 instructional process."

General Conclusions From the Research:

1. Grading and reporting are not essential to the instructional process.

2. Grading and reporting serve a variety of purposes, but no  one method serves all purposes well.

3. Grading and reporting will always involve some degree of subjectivity.

4. Mathematic precision does not yield fairer or more  objective grading.

5. Grades have some value as a reward, but no value as a punishment.                    

6. Grading and reporting should always be done in reference to learning criteria, never "on the curve."

7. Three general types of learning criteria are used in grading  and reporting:    
 a. Product criteria
 b. Process criteria
 c. Progress criteria
8. Report cards are but one way to communicate with parents.
    
    Guidelines for Better Practice:
1. Begin with a clear statement of purpose and specific learning goals.
    a. Why are grading and reporting done?
    b. For whom is the information intended?
    c. What are the desired results?
2. Ensure that grading and reporting methods provide accurate and understandable
    descriptions students learning.
    a. More a challenge in clear thinking and effective communication
    b. Less an exercise in quantifying achievement
3. Use grading and reporting methods to enhance teaching and learning.
    a. Facilitate communication between teachers, students, parents, and others.
    b. Ensure that efforts to help students are consistent and harmonious
4. Alleviate questionable practices:
    a. Example 1: Averaging to obtain a student's grade or mark.
    b. Example 2: Assigning a 'zero' to work that is late, missed, or neglected.
    c. Example 3: Taking credit away from students for behavioral infractions.



From: Guskey, T. R., & Bailey, J. M. (2001). Developing Grading and Reporting
Systems for Student Learning. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Guskey, T. R. (2002). How’s My Kid Doing: A Parent’s Guide to Grades,
Marks, & Report Cards. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Grades have no value as punishment. 

Are Students Trapped by Zeros?

The way students assessed was never developed in an orderly fashion. Standardized rules for grading don't exist. The lack of systematic assessment has created confusion.

The controversy over zero grades has been gaining momentum over the past decade. One side is represented mostly by administrators who are concerned about the ability of teachers to instruct well enough to reduce failing grades to a minimum. Schools and districts with a high failure rate are shunned, and although administrative concerns are deeper than mere appearance,communities apply pressure to develop “good” schools.

The assessment and evaluation procedures used in the nation’s schools were not designed with the most prudent statistical methods in mind. As a matter of fact, school grading systems weren’t designed; rather they evolved haphazardly. There have been recent efforts to ban zeros, to do away grades altogether, or to develop grading systems that can report progress without being subject to abuse. But most schools continue to use the 100 percent scale of long ago. Reform hasn’t met with overwhelming success, and zeros continue to take an uncalculated toll.

The Primary Problems with Zeros

• Some teachers continue to give zeros for behavior, while most knowledgeable educators understand that grades are for the assessment of academic progress. 
• Students are supposed to earn grades academically – teachers are not suppose to give them; 
• The distance between zero and passing is great. Consequently zeros can drop averaged grades severely. 
• When some teachers understand the mathematics and ethics of grading – and some don’t – then equally qualified students can perform equally and receive very different grades as a result of different grading “philosophies.” 

The Effects of Zero Grades are not Equally Understood by Teachers or Parents

The misunderstandings about grading and the effects of zeros are serious. The effects of non-academic zeros on beginning student can be confusing or discouraging. There is widespread belief that zeros motivate despite decades of research that students are more motivated by success.

The simple way to think about it is, “What makes me feel successful?” Answers to the question are not likely to include something that reminds one of failure. The old maxim, “Nothing succeeds like success,” is quite accurate. Success makes effort much more attractive because it makes one feel smarter. We learn from failure as adults. In school one fails from failure.

Prior to having a good understanding of human motivation, the practice of giving zeros for a wide variety of reasons had a head start. For some teachers, zeroes became a way to manage student behavior or even motivate students to perform better academically. Zeros continue to be given for trivial things like papers without student names or being turned in a day late.

The Solution: Uniform Understanding of Assessment and Better Teacher Training

To reduce confusion the most influential educators might help solve the zero mess by developing a set of accepted core beliefs about grading to clarify their purpose and use. Among these might be some of today’s more widely accepted elements of grading:

• Grades are for reporting student progress to students and parents. 
• Grades are confidential. 
• Grades are given to assess performance on valid assessments. 
• Grades are not to be affected by the inclusionof scores for behavioral pr procedural matter that are better managed byclassroom management techniques. 
• Grades are not for the development of or reporting of responsibility. 
• Low grades can be self-sustaining once started. 

These ideas are but a start. There is much more to the issue because, despite popular practice, reporting student progress completely and meaningfully is complex.

Leading educators, whoever they might be and whatever station they might hold, will have to become more vocal to develop new and more sensible ways to grade. Districts could initiate efforts to educate teachers who still do not understand motivation, discipline, and classroom management. Schools could benefit from sharing ideas about the ethical use of grades.

Zeros as grades are a defect from the antiquity of mathematics. Most teachers do well in assessing despite lack of good assessment guidelines,but some continue to use them as a convenient way to punish or motivate students, thus violating the generally honored practice of separating academics and behavior. Teachers, and most of all, students, could benefit from open dialogue.

Copyright Harvey Craft. Contact the author to obtain permission for republication.

Reasons for not Grading Homework

The most common reason for grading homework is because students expect it to be graded. But if one thinks about it, why would we give a grade on an activity that has all of the defects and problems of homework. 

• Homework easily can be copied from a classmate.
• Students do not have equal resources for completing homework.
• Some have Internet access, many do not.
• Many students do not have the bare essentials like a proper place at home to study or parents who can or will help.
• Homework is often more of an indicator of effort than learning. Please don't grade effort!
• Frequently homework is merely checked off if students have it but not graded. These checks are, by mysterious methods, "converted" into grades.
• Of all student work homework assignments are the most likely to receive zeros. The accumulation of zeros can unfairly skew the total grade fair below the total grade as indicated by tests.
• The effects of zeros on beginning learners can place many dangerously at-risk. Failure does not motivate, but frustrates and discourages.
• Homework is often assigned over weekends and holidays thereby interfering with family plans. Kids need a break.
• Many students have nights with hours of homework. This can be counterproductive, especially for young learners.
• Homework is often assigned for punitive reasons. Don't do it!
• If it is known that a student won't (or can't) do homework, continuing to assign it an giving zeros without intervention is wrong! 

Copyright Harvey Craft. Contact the author to obtain permission for republication.

Teaching Controversies: Homework and other Teaching Myths

Much of what is referred to as” instructional practice” has been passed on through generations while prospective teachers simply imitate what their teachers did when they were students.

I recently retired from what I consider to be one of the noblest of all professions, namely education. During my 30 years I was privileged to serve in a variety of placements from teacher to district office employee. As I followed my professional path, I made pretty much every mistake one can make in the classroom. But I rarely recognized them as mistakes until I began to write grants. Grant-writing requires research, and my eyes began to open as I read more and more about school organization and teaching. I purchased books on education and joined several professional organizations. 

The more I read, the more I became aware through simple observation that research frequently disagreed with actual practice in schools. With the advent of the Internet, I began to seek out varying opinions about school practices that interested me, often sharing these ideas with others.

Frequently I found disagreement with my developing views, but managed to eliminate many bad practices from my teaching. I adopted a philosophy that required that I find empirically supported evidence to support what I did and what I recommended.

Many of the points listed stem from the tendency to “forget” much of what was formally taught and simply do what was done to us. Educator attitudes can be seriously impaired by the assumption that our former teachers knew what they were doing. Likely, most did. Just as likely a significant number used instructional and disciplinary techniques that were deeply flawed. I suggest that all educators seriously examine their beliefs and practices and objectively seek to validate their philosophies of education.

Homework. We have somehow managed to convince large numbers of parents that homework is the sine qua non of education. As far as I can tell, the jury will be out for a long time on this issue. The problem is divided into at least three considerations: (1) How much homework is enough, (2) what is the role of homework in instruction, and (3) how does homework affect a student’s grade, or should it even be counted as part of assessment. I stopped grading homework before I had been teaching for five years. I believe, as do many others, that homework’s primary use if for practice and diagnosis.

Continuing to apply techniques that don’t work. Albert Einstein’s definition of insanity was “doing the same thing over and over and expecting different results.” How often have you heard a teacher expression frustration over a frequently applied method just doesn’t work as expected? As you listen more it becomes evident that the technique has been used for years.

I recall as a rookie science teacher complaining to the principal that two classes (homogeneously grouped by low standardized test scores and low grades) almost never brought their texts to class. Texts, I thought then, were the hub around which instruction revolved.

“If they won’t bring them to class, why do to you require that they take them home in the first place?” he asked.

I was baffled by his question. Why, indeed? Where was it written that students had to take textbooks home? But everyone required it (or so I assumed). Could everyone be wrong? The solution was simple: keep a class set of books in class. We would use textbooks in class as needed. Homework would no longer require removing textbooks from the classroom, but would consist of activities that students could complete without a textbook.

The new system worked well. The major problem now became the complaints of several teachers who felt I was violating a sacred practice.

Developing Responsibility. I will never argue that responsibility is a bad thing. But what is it? Responsibility is a concept with too many dimensions to be discussed here. Having been involved in dozens of formal and informal discussions about the topic, I have concluded that fundamentally responsibility means knowing the right thing to do and doing it. I believe that an examination of what teachers perceive it to be and how they try to instill it in students is needed.

Many years ago while walking to the school office I met the principal. We were good friends, and I respected him for his intelligence and keen judgment. As we approached one another, we slowed and stopped. I made an obligatory social inquiry about how his day was going. After a pause, and uncharacteristic scowl transformed his face.

“I wish teachers didn’t feel like they were required to teach responsibility!” he said, shaking his head and hurrying off.

I never discussed his statement with him again, but I never forgot his scowl and the frustration it implied. As years passed and I became involved in various administrative positions, I quickly learned the meaning of his words. The R-word became an almost daily issue in various ways. Simply for the sake of faculty clarification, I once held a teachers’ meeting to discuss what responsibility was and what was the teacher’s role in educating students to be responsible. I came away from the meeting with the feeling that teachers expected students to be responsible in the same way they wanted their children to be responsible, which was how the teachers viewed themselves as responsible. In a few words responsibility meant "Do as you're told!" The meeting left me conflicted, as it generated many views that seemed utterly “at odds.”

Among the questions I was cursed to juggle for years were:

• Does punishment help develop responsibility?
• Do rewards foster responsibility?
• Can teachers fundamentally change students?
• Do parents want teachers to “teach” their children to be responsible?
• Does homework develop responsibility?
• Should students be allowed more choices in school to help them develop responsibility?

The most significant idea that occurred to me was that responsibility is not “owned” by adults. Almost any list of irresponsible behaviors attributed to students (laziness, fighting, gossiping, cursing, tardiness, etc) can be applied to adults. The R-word, in reality, is reduced to two points: (1) Do as I say, not as I do, and (2) If a student is irresponsible, it the parents’ fault.

Rules. There can be no questions that rules are necessary in classrooms and everywhere in society. The problem is that class rules can influence the classroom environment in a positive or negative way. They can reveal volumes about the personality of the teacher or cause students to misinterpret whether or not the teacher is “good” or “bad.” Many teachers post their rules on the Internet. Scrutinizing these expectations” often reveals that rules contain pet peeves, are rudely composed, are based on antiquated practices, reveal a hunger for control and an over-reliance on the use of “zeros,” and are unnecessarily threatening. Their carved-in-stone tone leaves little room for exceptions and exceptions are unavoidable. Sarcasm is rampant (“Your mother doesn’t work here!”).

I posted one “rule” in my class: “Do the right thing -- just because!” I held a discussion the first day of class about what that meant. Students were always willing to take part in clarifying the statement, and they applied it to behavior, turning in work, mutual respect, and pretty much all issues included in class rules, including exceptions. When students violated “the rule,” there was room to discuss the violation as it applied to students as individuals. I found that one size rarely fit all.

Lists of rules, it seems, are never complete. Teachers and administrators are constantly finding new rules to address new issues. Frequently rules of this type are made in haste in response to an anger or irritation, and in the busy school environment they provide additional burdens for students and /or teachers. Rules should be carefully considered and written when emotions are not involved. Rules may have unexpected consequences. The problem may be solved, but those affected may harbor unspoken resentment. Teachers and principals might avoid problems by discussing the problem with the class or faculty before producing. Gathering the perspectives of others can often be a solution and avoid another rule.

How and why we grade. The most contentious faculty meeting I ever attended involved a discussion of grading within the school. The debate centered on alternative methods of grading, including median grading. I decided that most teachers would rather give up their jobs than abandon their grading method most of which were based on variations of “averaging.” That is, after all, what had been done to them in school and college.

In my experience I have encountered few educators who realize that the statistically proper way to determine a single, representative grade from a list of scores is by using the median (middle) score. The reason for this requires a little understanding of statistics. I suggest readers search the Internet for explanations. It is almost unbelievable after all these years that most of us are not grading properly because we don’t know better. Median grades have several advantages that are too lengthy to be discussed here, but one of the most important is that it solves the problem of what to do with all of those zeros.

On the day of the discussion, however, the most vocal teachers interpreted the “zero issue” as giving students points they didn’t deserve. To them, the issue seemed to be that zeros could be applied as punishment for poor work. Correctness in grading didn’t seem to matter. After all, widely used computerized grading systems included averaging as the only option.

However, even if simple averaging is OK, what about the multitude of ways teachers average? I’m referring how teachers determine the relative values of the different components of a grade. Tests, in my experience, count the most, but not always. Some teachers may not count homework in arriving at a quarterly grade but some count it excessively. Then consider the inclusion of questionable practices: extra credit, adding or subtracting points for non-academic reasons, arbitrarily taking away or adding points for punitive reasons, and on an on. That some students pass or fail merely because some have teachers who grade in manner that artificially lowers grades is unacceptable.

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 Answers to Assessment Quiz:

1. B      2. D        3. A       4. C       5. C       6. D        7. B         8.A        9. C       10. A